When was the last time you felt exhausted? It was probably recently, and it likely wasn’t just a one-time occurrence in the past few weeks. If you stop to observe, we’re all like this. This doesn’t seem like a healthy kind of tiredness, the kind that a weekend of rest can fix, but rather an “infinite tiredness.” You try to rest, but you can’t.

Fortunately, the South Korean philosopher and cultural theorist Byung-Chul Han attempted to unravel the origins of this chronic fatigue in his work The Burnout Society. I’ll use it as the basis for this article, but I’ll also try to add some concepts and insights I gained while reading his book.

The Great Shift - From Discipline to Performance

In his work Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Michel Foucault introduces the concept of the “disciplinary society.” According to him, this society is a new way of organizing the social body and exercising power that became dominant in Western Europe roughly between the 17th and 18th centuries, consolidating in the 19th century. It represents a fundamental shift from previous forms of power, such as the sovereign power of the monarch, which was primarily expressed through spectacular physical punishment (torture and public executions, for example).

In contrast, disciplinary power is subtler, more pervasive, and productive. Its goal is not so much to punish the body but to train it, shape it, optimize it, and make it docile and useful. It operates through a set of techniques and institutions aimed at controlling individuals in detail, in space and time.

“It is not that the disciplinary mode of power replaced all others; rather, it infiltrated them, sometimes disqualifying them or converging with them […] The formation of the disciplinary society refers to a number of broad historical processes within which it is inscribed: economic, juridical-political, scientific.” (Foucault, M. Discipline and Punish. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1987, p. 177-178)

The performance society (Leistungsgesellschaft) is the dominant social form today (late 20th and early 21st centuries), which succeeded the disciplinary society. If the disciplinary society was characterized by negativity (prohibitions, duties, the “you cannot”), the performance society is marked by an excess of positivity (the “yes, we can!”, initiative, motivation, the project).

The subject of this society is no longer Foucault’s “subject of obedience,” shaped by external institutions, but the彼此

System: the “subject of performance” (Leistungssubjekt). They perceive themselves as free, autonomous, and responsible for their own success. They are not coerced by an external force to work or behave in a certain way; they self-motivate, self-optimize, and self-exploit, believing they are realizing their potential. The pressure no longer comes from outside (the boss, the teacher) but from within (the need to perform, to be better, to achieve more). There’s no gun pointed at us forcing us to do anything—only the one we project onto ourselves.

“Foucault’s disciplinary society, made up of hospitals, asylums, prisons, barracks, and factories, is no longer today’s society. It has long been replaced by another society, namely a society of fitness studios, office buildings, banks, airports, shopping malls, and genetic laboratories. The 21st-century society is no longer a disciplinary society but a performance society.” (Han, B.-C. The Burnout Society. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2015, p. 25)

The Subject of Performance

You’re probably starting to identify as a “subject of performance,” but hold on, there’s much more to come…

Existentialism

This excess of positivity isn’t entirely new for the subject of performance; we can compare it to the radical freedom of existentialism, particularly that of Jean-Paul Sartre. For existentialists like Sartre, freedom is the fundamental condition of being human. We have no predefined essence or nature determined by God or biology (“existence precedes essence”). We are radically free to choose who we will be through our actions.

But this excessive freedom comes at a price: anguish. It’s not light or easy; it’s a heavy burden. We are “condemned to be free”. This means we are completely responsible for our choices and for creating our own destiny in an indifferent world. There’s no divine grace coming to save us; only we can save ourselves, only if we do enough.

One might think that Sartre’s radical freedom is the same as that offered by the performance society: “you can do anything.” However, there’s a crucial difference. Sartre’s freedom, though anguishing, is a call to authentically create oneself in a world without divine guarantees—hence the anguish of total responsibility. In contrast, the “freedom” of the performance society, the “you can do anything,” doesn’t generate the anguish of choosing who to be but rather the pressure and exhaustion of having to perform incessantly. The responsibility here isn’t about creating meaning but about optimizing performance. Both leave us “without divine grace,” alone, but while Sartre confronts us with the void of choice, Han shows us crushed by the fullness of the infinite possibility of doing more.

This pressure for performance, this internalized responsibility for success (or failure), is reflected daily in our culture.

Reflection in Today’s World

Perhaps this is one of the thousands of challenges the subject of performance faces daily. As subjects of performance, we can do whatever we want; we have no limits. We see science and technology achieving increasingly incredible feats that we once thought impossible, influencers and billionaires getting richer, geniuses becoming smarter, and so on. We get the impression that if they succeeded, we can too. That it’s all a matter of wanting and doing. We’re not at their level only because of our own fault, because we didn’t work hard enough, didn’t study enough, or, in short: didn’t try hard enough.

From this point, we acquire the “class” of both Master and Slave simultaneously. We judge our own abilities, habits, achievements, and so forth.

“The excess of work and performance escalates into self-exploitation. This is more efficient than exploitation by others because it goes hand in hand with the feeling of freedom. The exploiter is simultaneously the exploited. […] The performance society is a society of self-exploitation.” (Ibid., p. 28)

We see ourselves as entirely individual (individual sovereignty), able to pursue whatever we want, whenever we want. We lose the notion that others are extremely important to us. Our friendships become merely utilitarian; we compete for attention as the currency of our self-esteem. We stop seeing others as friends and companions and instead view them as adversaries in an endless marathon. We start friendships based on “what can you offer me?” We completely lose our emotional sensitivity, becoming productive machines.

Social Media

Here, social media plays a fundamental role in fueling these comparisons. When we look at our Instagram feed, we practically only see attempts to achieve perfection. Everyone has the perfect body, the perfect spouse, the perfect child, the perfect job. You’re the only one still facing problems at home and work.

It’s impossible not to compare ourselves to these “fake” people. And once again, we’re not like them only because we don’t do enough. We close our eyes to everything else and focus only on the results, believing it all depends solely on us.

People are defined by their achievements, and we compare ourselves to them. We can’t show our weaknesses at any cost; that’s something only “losers” do, something we are not. This is why communities and genuine communion, where people share the same ideas and struggles, are lacking. Without them, serious psychological issues arise, such as depression, anxiety, burnout, and more.

If you want to dive deeper into this topic, I recommend the documentary The Social Dilemma on Netflix.

Nietzsche and the Tyranny of Reason

In Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche fiercely attacks the idols (revered values and ideas) of Western philosophy and morality. One of his targets is the overvaluation of reason, consciousness, and logic, which he associates primarily with Socrates and Plato.

For Nietzsche, this primacy of reason over instincts, vital impulses, the body, and emotions is not a sign of progress but of decadence. Yet, our current society sees it as progress. How many times have we, or seen others, denied the body, ignored the signals it sends us, in favor of something more “productive”?

This, in itself, already implies a logical flaw, as our body requires balance, especially between Reason and Emotion. As long as one is overvalued, we won’t act appropriately, since, for example, this tyranny of reason can lead to resentment against life, to nihilism. But if the subject of performance prioritizes performance above all, shouldn’t they know that as long as they remain a “rational machine,” they won’t achieve fulfillment? What we see is the opposite: we don’t give due value to emotion, to the body.

“Having to fight instincts—that is the formula for decadence: as long as life is ascending, happiness equals instinct.” (Nietzsche, F. Twilight of the Idols, or How to Philosophize with a Hammer. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2006, § “The Problem of Socrates,” 11.)

We start to see productivity as the meaning of life, valuing quantity of work over quality (another logical flaw). As Nietzsche points out, this denial of instincts and the body in favor of reason focused solely on production manifests starkly in how modern humans deal (or rather, fail to deal) with fundamental human needs. We’ve lost the capacity for genuine rest and even contemplative boredom.

If you’re interested in this topic, I have another article written specifically about this book by Nietzsche, where I draw an existentialist parallel between Nietzsche and Dostoevsky. Click here to read.

The Performance Society in Education

Finally, we’ll analyze the impacts on schools and universities before moving to possible solutions. First, I’d like to share some quotes from two scientists and geniuses I greatly admire, Albert Einstein and Richard Feynman:

“The school failed me, and I failed the school. It bored me. The teachers behaved like Feldwebel (sergeants). I wanted to learn what I wanted to know, but they wanted me to learn for the exam. What I hated most was the competitive system there, especially sports. Because of this, I wasn’t worth anything, and several times they suggested I leave. It was a Catholic school in Munich. I felt that my thirst for knowledge was being stifled by my teachers; grades were their only measure. How can a teacher understand youth with such a system? From the age of twelve, I began to suspect authority and distrust teachers.” — Albert Einstein

“The power of education in general is hardly effective, except in those happy occasions when it is almost superfluous.” — Edward Gibbon, quoted by Feynman in Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher (1995)

I believe it’s already clear that the current goal of education is largely to deliver diplomas and ensure students achieve good grades. The love for knowledge is no longer encouraged but discouraged, as most students see studying as a punishment rather than a pleasure. Is this our goal?

The pressure for grades, rankings, extracurricular activities “for the resume,” and the internalization of the idea that value lies in measurable results turn students into subjects of performance.

A global study by the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment revealed that 56% of Brazilian students surveyed are among the most stressed during their studies. When it comes to test anxiety, Brazilian students rank second out of 180 countries, according to Ferraz Júnior in an article in Jornal da USP.

But it’s not too late; there are still solutions for the “subject of performance.”

Possible Solutions

As expected, there are no quick and easy solutions. This culture has permeated many spheres of our society, meaning that even if you fix one, another will still hinder you. So, when we can’t easily change the external environment, we turn to internal changes, such as proper rest.

No Rest for the Wicked

I mentioned at the start of the article that when you try to rest, you often can’t. The reason for this is that you don’t know how to rest properly. A study by the World Sleep Society indicates that sleep problems constitute a global epidemic threatening the health and quality of life of up to 45% of the world’s population.

In his book Why We Sleep, neuroscientist Matthew Walker states: “The decimation of sleep in industrialized nations is having a catastrophic impact on our health, our well-being, even the safety and education of our children. It’s a silent epidemic of sleep loss.”

I won’t delve into the exact causes of why we sleep so poorly; let’s focus only on how to sleep better. Fortunately, Walker provides some tips for improving sleep in an appendix titled “Twelve Tips for Healthy Sleep.” Here they are:

  1. Regularity: Go to bed and wake up at the same times every day, including weekends. He emphasizes the importance of this for regulating the biological clock.
  2. Temperature: Keep the room cool, as a slight drop in body temperature helps initiate sleep.
  3. Darkness: Ensure the room is as dark as possible.
  4. Avoid Alcohol and Caffeine: Especially close to bedtime. He explains how alcohol fragments sleep and caffeine blocks drowsiness signals.
  5. Don’t Stay in Bed Awake: If you can’t sleep after about 20 minutes, get up and do something relaxing elsewhere until you feel sleepy again, to avoid associating the bed with frustration.
  6. Relaxing Routine: Create a calming pre-sleep ritual (reading a physical book, taking a warm bath, meditating), avoiding bright screens.
  7. Physical Exercise: Exercise regularly, but avoid intense activities close to bedtime.
  8. Sunlight: Expose yourself to natural light in the morning to help regulate the circadian cycle.

Additionally, engaging in regular physical activity and avoiding prolonged use of phones, TVs, etc., can aid rest.

An interesting point is that Nietzsche tells us that after the “death” of God, we began to worship health: “we praise health—‘we found happiness,’ say the last men and blink” (Thus Spoke Zarathustra - Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 5th section, vol. 1, p. 14). Just look at the crowded gyms and the booming wellness industry, yet we still fail at basic health aspects like sleep.

I believe that while the rise of psychology has made us look inward more, we haven’t reflected enough on ourselves and other things; we lack quietude, boredom, and contemplation.

The Forgotten Importance of Boredom

It may seem strange at first, but boredom and contemplation are essential in our daily lives. The problem is that we’re always trying to escape them; we can’t stand being alone with ourselves anymore. Neuroscience has explored what happens in the brain during periods of “doing nothing,” boredom, or mental wandering (mind-wandering). Often, this is linked to the activation of the Default Mode Network (DMN).

When our mind isn’t focused on a specific external task, the DMN becomes more active. This network is associated with self-reflection, thinking about the future, retrieving memories, and, crucially, combining ideas in new ways, which can foster creativity. Boredom can be a trigger for activating this network. Suggested reading: Bored and Brilliant: How Time Spent Doing Nothing Changes Everything - Manoush Zomorodi.

Neuroscientist Mary Helen Immordino-Yang argues that mental downtime is not idleness. It’s during these periods of apparent rest and internal reflection that the brain consolidates learning, builds personal meaning, and develops a sense of self. Constant external stimulation hinders these crucial processes.

This isn’t exclusive to modern science. For example, Nietzsche wrote: “Only thoughts that come to us while walking are valuable.” Beyond the German philosopher, Eastern philosophies and Buddhist traditions have much to teach us on this topic.

First, the practice of mindfulness (full attention) teaches us to observe mental states—including boredom, restlessness, or calm—without judgment and without the immediate need to “escape” them, recognizing boredom as a passing experience rather than a problem to be solved. Thich Nhat Hanh speaks extensively about the importance of quietude for listening to ourselves and the world: “In silence, we can hear ourselves. But often, we fear silence, filling our lives with noise and activity to avoid facing what’s inside us.”

Many Buddhist traditions emphasize the importance of contemplation (analytical or simply quiet) as a means to develop prajna (wisdom, discernment) about the nature of reality, impermanence, and the workings of the mind. This requires deliberately setting aside time for quietude and internal inquiry, in contrast to constant action. Alan Watts, a philosopher I greatly admire, says:

“A person who thinks all the time has nothing to think about except thoughts. So, they lose touch with reality and live in a world of illusion.”

The performance society values constant mental activity. Watts argued that this incessant thinking disconnects us from the direct experience of life. Contemplation and even “boredom” (seen as an absence of goal-directed thought) can be antidotes, allowing a return to the present reality.

Conclusion

I began by discussing the universal feeling of tiredness, introduced Han as the diagnostician of this condition, explored the shift from the disciplinary society to the performance society, delved into the characteristics of the subject of performance, and discussed the crucial importance of rest and boredom. Now, it’s time for the conclusion, right?

Tiredness is not (just) an individual failure but a profound symptom of the “Performance Society.” Given this scenario, the question remains: what to do?

Escaping the logic of performance entirely may seem impossible, but perhaps the key lies in reflection and self-analysis, as illustrated by a story about the Buddha. “The Buddha asked a king’s wife who was dearest to her, and though the king expected himself as the answer, she said: myself.” This wasn’t said in a narcissistic sense but rather that she cares for herself. Perhaps this is one of the things we lack most these days.

This genuine self-analysis and self-care, as suggested in the Buddha’s story, are the opposite of the cruel logic the performance society can impose on us. After all, without it, we may fall into the following logic: since we are defective tools, what do we do with defective tools that can’t be repaired? We throw them away.

Throughout history, many philosophers faced extreme torment, such as imprisonment, torture, and execution. If you read their writings, they say almost the same thing: “They can do whatever they want with my body, but they’ll never reach my mind.” They saw the mind as their last refuge. But if Han is right, this is no longer the case for us. The performance culture already controls our bodies and, above all, our minds, depriving us of deep relaxation.

Bibliography

  • FOUCAULT, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Raquel Ramalhete. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1987. (Original title: Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison, 1975).
  • HAN, Byung-Chul. The Burnout Society. Translated by Enio Paulo Giachini. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2015. (Original title: Müdigkeitsgesellschaft, 2010).
  • NIETZSCHE, Friedrich. Twilight of the Idols, or How to Philosophize with a Hammer. Translated, notes, and afterword by Paulo César de Souza. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2006. § “The Problem of Socrates,” 11.
  • HERMANNS, William. Einstein and the Poet: In Search of the Cosmic Man. Boston: Branden Publishing Company, 1983.
  • FEYNMAN, Richard P. Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995.
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  • WALKER, Matthew. Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams. Translated by Cássio de Arantes Leite. Rio de Janeiro: Intrínseca, 2018. (Original title: Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams, 2017).
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  • NIETZSCHE, Friedrich. Twilight of the Idols, or How to Philosophize with a Hammer. Translated, notes, and afterword by Paulo César de Souza. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2006. § “Maxims and Arrows,” 34.
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  • WATTS, Alan W. The Wisdom of Insecurity: A Message for an Age of Anxiety. Translated by Waldéa Barcellos. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1973.

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